2010-12-01, 10:07 PM
(This post was last modified: 2010-12-01, 10:34 PM by Felicitates.)
[COLOR="Magenta"]This is a language I made up in my linguistics class. I wanted to share it with you guys for some feedback, its due on Friday (: I'm so excited to present it! Let me know what you guys think!
♥
PS - I kept it in black so its easier to read =P, on and anything in caps, I'm waiting for a response from my instructor for clarification!
[/COLOR]
Part 1: Introduction
I had originally found the small town of Kiëv while backpacking across Europe. They are small community made up of about 1400. They live in Eastern European style villages in an isolated region of the Carpathian Mountains near Piatra-Neamt, Romania. When I first stepped through the village, they could clearly tell I was an outsider, and a young 12-year-old girl who introduced herself as Kae was the only one who could speak English. The people of this village spoke a language called Baurtrevestien. INSERT KEY PROPERTIES OF THE LANGUAGE HERE I was fascinated, and asked Kae if she would teach me. She happily agreed, and began by showing me basic greetings. It began with a bow, while extending ones arms slightly out behind you like a bird. The greeting itself is made up of a complex word. Its root is /ma’ate/, which meant, ‘greetings.’ When addressing an older individual, the a suffix is added, /-ʏɵ/, and it is changed to /ma’ate-ʏɵ/ or ‘greetings elder.’ When you are a woman addressing a man, the suffix /-ʒoni/, which means ‘power’ is added and when a man addresses a woman, /-ʃimkɵ/ or ‘life-giver’ is added. From that point on, we covered a wide array of topics. We discussed the individual sounds Baurtrevestien made, basic and complex words, simple sentences and how to form questions, and finally, how to demonstrate politeness and respect.
Part 2: Phonemic Inventory
Within Baurtrevestien, there are many combinations of fricative and alveolar type sounds. It is very similar to the inventory of the Flemish-Brabant dialect of Orsmaal-Gussenhoven in where it contains a remarkably large vowel system that emphasizes vowel length and the placements of consonants. But it lacks the french loans that Flemish-Brabant uses (Peters 2010: 240).
The majority of the consonant sounds are alveolar consonants, and there are no voiced versus voiceless pairs. The only exception is the fricative post-alveolar, because ʃ is one of the foundational sounds in Baurtrevestien. The minimal pair taë /tæː/ and thaë /thæː/ show that the language, Baurtrevestien makes a distinction in aspiration. Taë means “food” and thaë means “hand.” Vowels in Baurtrevestien are mostly comprised of front vowels. The native speakers distinguish between vowel length for different words, but there are no distinctions between rounded and unrounded vowels except for the front close-mid vowels. Vowel length distinctions can be demonstrated by the minimal pair, Schzö /ʃɔ:/ meaning "rain" and Schoh /ʃɔ/ meaning "shore." The syllables in Baurtrevestien are unique to this language. They may never begin with vowels, because vowels are viewed as the female part of the languge. In this culture, the woman may never go before the men. Baurtrevestien’s maximum of onset consonants is two, by the example /ʃlepa/. Clusters in Baurtrevestien include, /ʃl/, /βl/, and /βr/. Syllables may have more than one coda constant, though it is very rare and mostly used for technical terms such as
/βɾɔetɔhm/ which literally means, “lizard skin which aids the wound.” /hm/ is so far the only coda consonant cluster I’ve been able to document. The language is centered around certain consonant and vowel combinations which are built up on to expand the language. Although there are very few consonants to this language, it is given freedom with the large number of vowels.
Part 3: Morphology
BASIC WORDS HERE Word building in Baurtrevestien is based around several important concepts within this community. There are several inflectional morpheme categories that Baurtrevestien emphasizes on. Inflectional morphemes are “a small set of bound morphemes that do not change the grammatical class of a word but do alter it in some way” (Winkler 2007: 89). Gender is possibly the most important, as this community takes gender identity very serious. It is marked by special affixes. The prefix, ʃi- is used for noun phrased marked as female; the infix -ʒo- is for noun phrases marked as male. The neuter part in noun phrases is not marked specifically in singular noun phrases, but in plural noun phrases, it is evident with the suffix, -rɔ.
(1) ʃi-ʃimɾa to-ʒo-ni ʃimɾa-rɔ
FEM-leaf MASC-flame bird-PLU
‘the leaf’ (female) ‘the flame’ (male) the birds’ (plural neutral)
Directionality also plays an important role within this language. Usually it is only marked onto verbs, and especially those that indicate traveling or movement. Bautrevestien uses only basic directionality and is suffixed onto verbs. The suffix -hɑ indicates the action is coming from in front of you, or that you do in a forward motion. The suffix -hɔ indicates a backwards equivalent to -hɑ. The suffix -hɛ indicates a motion towards the left, or on your left side. The suffix -hʉ is the right side equivalent.
(2) βamo-ha βamo-hɔ βamo-hɛ βamo-hʉ
jump-forward jump-back jump-left jump-right
‘jump in a forwards direction' ‘jump in a backwards direction’ ‘jump towards the left’ ‘jump towards the right’
Baurtrevestien is similar to English in which each person tense has its own morpheme to indicate which person is being used. First person, which is when one is referring to themselves, they use the word la. When someone is talking to another, (or second person) they use the word, ʃu. And finally when someone is pointing out an individual who is not part of the dialogue, they are simply referred to as pa.
(3) La ʃu Pa
1st Per. 2nd Per. 3rd Per.
I You He/She/It
In the language I’ve been studying, they simply add on a suffix to indicate plural, and then do not alter the word if it is singular. If a word is singular, say, birds it would simply be written as, ʃimɾa or ‘bird.’ If it was plural, it would be given a suffix to indicate there was more then one, which is -rɔ. So the word would simply change to ʃimɾa-rɔ.
(4) ʃimɾa ʃimɾa-rɔ
bird bird pl.
‘bird’ (singular) ‘birds’ (plural)
Part 4: Syntax
The basic word order in Bautrevestien is VSO. This is so that the verb and all of its auxiliaries come first, then the subject, and finally the object. This can be demonstrated in the simple sentences below (5,6,7). In comparison to word order in 20th century Breton, it is exactly the same. It “has been traditionally classified as a VSO language, in line with other Celtic languages,” so it could be said that Bautrevestien possibly is part of the same family tree as Breton (Timm 1989: 361).
(5) mɨzø kotoɹaβə jada ʃimtø-rɔ va pakɛ
to have sitting all bird-s on stick
‘All the birds are sitting on the stick.’
This is a simple, transitive sentance, using the auxillary verb, /mɨzø/ and the quantifier, /jada/.
(6)
mɨzø mɑɹdiɑ βəɹɑ schoh ʃimtø-rɔ
to have move across shore bird-pl.
‘The birds move across the shore.’
This is a simple intransitive sentence in Baurtrevestien.
(7) mɨzø yada kotoɹaβə-hʉ ʃimtø-rɔ rɨmaete pakɛ
to have all sitting-right bird-s around stick
‘All the birds are sitting to the right around the stick.’
Yes or No questions in Baurtrevestien are formed by re-arranging the word order by placing the main verb of the verb phrase before anything else and adding an upward inflection, also a question particle is added to the main verb. This came be demonstrated by examples (8) and (9).
(8) mɨzø yada kotoɹaβə-hʉ ʃimtø-rɔ
to have all sitting-right bird-s
‘All the birds are sitting to the right.’
(9) kotoɹaβə-hʉ-cre? mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ
sitting-right-ques. to have all bird-s
‘Are all the birds are sitting to the right?’
Content questions are a little different in where a question morpheme is added to the end, and the main vern is still moved to the beginning of the sentence. This can be demonstrated by examples (10) and (11).
mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ kotoɹaβə va pakɛ
to have all bird-s sitting on stick
‘All the birds are sitting on the stick.’
kotoɹaβə mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ mo
sitting to have all bird-s what
‘All the birds are sitting on what?’
Part 5: Pragmatics - Politeness and Respect
In different languages there are different rules for polite speech or respect speech. For example, Japanese uses a very developed way of presenting polite speech. Not only does it have multiple forms of the same word to express it politely but it also has “verb-compounds by themselves are capable of expressing the speaker’s intention of respecting or honoring the person referred to, or humbling the speaker himself”. In comparison to English, this is completely different polite speech. Instead of relying on tone and word choice, Japanese “classifies polite forms of its words into three types: polite honorific, polite-humble, and polite-neutral” (Prindle 1981: 209). Human beings use different ways to express politeness and respect. It could be through the alteration of morphemes or through simple morpheme choice and tone. But this is only comparatively with two languages, there is probably endless possibilities between the 7,000 or more human languages in the world today.
In Baurtrevestien, politeness is reflected similarly to Japanese in where there are “polite” forms of words to be “capable of expressing the speaker’s intention of respecting or honor the person being referred to” (Prindle 1981: 209). However the system isn’t exactly alike as Baurtrevestien does not classify these into three different categories. It simply sticks to what is being reflected as a reference to a male and a female. The emphasis in this gender role is vital among this community as several rituals and religions rights involve the different sexes. For example take the following dialogue as a man addressing a woman. He knows her as an acquaintance, and she the same.
Man: “Greetings-lifegiver, how do you find yourself this morning?”
Woman: “Hello-power, I’m very well this morning, thank you.”
The point of this dialogue is to illustrate how a “polite-honorific” is attached to a word to imply “agendas of stratification of social relationships” (Prindle 2009). There is also polite tone and clear speaking implied in this dialogue. In the next dialogue, an emphasis is placed on the fact that the woman’s polite article is also the morpheme for the sacred deity among this people, as well as how men are referred with the morpheme for strength. It is also demonstrated when a man and woman are grouped together in a pronoun that a new particle, “-ʏɵi.” Which literally translated means, “us of mankind.”
Speaker A: “You-ʃimkɵ know you-ʃimkɵ are very lucky to be a woman-ʃimkɵ. You-ʃimkɵ are blessed with the gift of our-ʏɵi mother, ʃimkɵ.”
Woman: “Thank you-ʒoni. As a “ʃimkɵ,” I must uphold what her sacredness ʃimkɵ has laid out before us-ʏɵi. We-ʏɵi cannot be referred as -ʃimkɵ without first being under our-ʏɵi great mother’s guiding light.”
To summarize, the rules of polite speech in Baurtrevestien are simple. You simply refer with the right polite-honorifics, tone and word choice. It is similar in the idea that it uses polite-honorifics with Japanese, but it doesn’t get quite as complex.
Part 6: Conclusion
Baurtrevestien is a unique language. I consider myself very lucky to have had an opportunity to study this lost language. Several aspects of this language such as the focus on alveolar consonants, and front vowels give it a sense of freedom and creativity many languages do not possess. It uses vowel length and aspiration to distinguish multiple words. It is similar to the Flesmish-Brabant dialect of Orsmaal-Gussenhoven, but lacks the french loans (Peters 2010: 240). Word building in Baurtrevestien can be especially difficult for the non-native. Gender, person, number and directionality all incorporate either affixes, or morphemes of their own that enrich this language. Baurtrevestien’s basic word order is SVO, which is exactly the same as 20th Century Breton, which has “has been traditionally classified as a VSO language, in line with other Celtic languages,” so it could be inferred that Baurtrevestien possibly is part of the same language family as Breton (Timm 1989: 361). Baurtrevestien’s pragmatics on politeness and respect are similar to Japanese, but lack the massive number of categories. It holds attachments to every reference of the sender and receiver of a dialogue. Baurtrevestien has offered a very important insight into what is an endangered language. I wonder what other complexities there are still to learn for this language, such as situations or emergency or family life. I think it would be interesting to research more on pragmatics within this language.
Part 7: Reference Page
Bowern, Claire. 2007. Swadesh wordlist, organized by semantic field. In Linguistic Fieldwork: A Practical Guide. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Peters, Jörg. 2010. Illustrations of the IPA: The Flemish-Brabant dialect of Orsmall- Gussenhoven. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40. 239-246.
Prindle, Tamae K. 1981. Polite Forms of Japanese Speech. Anthropological Linguistics. 23. 209-246.
Winkler, Elizabeth. 2007. Understanding language. New York: Continuum.
Part 8: Appendix of Words Used
Morpheme by morpheme glosses?
Word Free Translation Part of Speech
ma’ate Greetings Noun
-ʏɵ Elder Noun
-ʒoni Power Noun
-ʃimkɵ Life-giver Noun
ʃimɾa Leaf Noun
ʃimtø Bird Noun
ʃimʃlepa Fish Noun
pɔɾʉ Rock Noun
makɛ pɔɾʉ Mountain Noun
ʒiː Sun Noun
pakɛ Stick Noun
ɾɔʃim Blood Noun
tæː Food Noun
thæː Hand Noun
ʃɔ: Rain Noun
ʃɔ Shore Noun
βɾɔetɔhm Lizard Skin Wound Healer Noun
toni Flame Noun
La I Pronoun
ʃu You Pronoun
pa We Pronoun
ʃi- Female- Prefix
-ʒo- -male- Infix
-rɔ -plural Suffix
-ha Forwards Suffix
-hɔ Backwards Suffix
-hɛ Towards the left Suffix
-hʉ Towards the right Suffix
makɛ Big Adjective
ʃlepa Wet Adjective
mɑɹdiɑ Move Verb
βamo Jump Verb
kotoɹaβə Sit Verb
mo What Question Word
rɨmaete Around Adposition
jada All Quantifier
va On Preposition
βəɹɑ Across Preposition
mɨzø To Have Auxiliary Verb
-cre? Question Particle Question Particle
♥
PS - I kept it in black so its easier to read =P, on and anything in caps, I'm waiting for a response from my instructor for clarification!
[/COLOR]
Part 1: Introduction
I had originally found the small town of Kiëv while backpacking across Europe. They are small community made up of about 1400. They live in Eastern European style villages in an isolated region of the Carpathian Mountains near Piatra-Neamt, Romania. When I first stepped through the village, they could clearly tell I was an outsider, and a young 12-year-old girl who introduced herself as Kae was the only one who could speak English. The people of this village spoke a language called Baurtrevestien. INSERT KEY PROPERTIES OF THE LANGUAGE HERE I was fascinated, and asked Kae if she would teach me. She happily agreed, and began by showing me basic greetings. It began with a bow, while extending ones arms slightly out behind you like a bird. The greeting itself is made up of a complex word. Its root is /ma’ate/, which meant, ‘greetings.’ When addressing an older individual, the a suffix is added, /-ʏɵ/, and it is changed to /ma’ate-ʏɵ/ or ‘greetings elder.’ When you are a woman addressing a man, the suffix /-ʒoni/, which means ‘power’ is added and when a man addresses a woman, /-ʃimkɵ/ or ‘life-giver’ is added. From that point on, we covered a wide array of topics. We discussed the individual sounds Baurtrevestien made, basic and complex words, simple sentences and how to form questions, and finally, how to demonstrate politeness and respect.
Part 2: Phonemic Inventory
Within Baurtrevestien, there are many combinations of fricative and alveolar type sounds. It is very similar to the inventory of the Flemish-Brabant dialect of Orsmaal-Gussenhoven in where it contains a remarkably large vowel system that emphasizes vowel length and the placements of consonants. But it lacks the french loans that Flemish-Brabant uses (Peters 2010: 240).
The majority of the consonant sounds are alveolar consonants, and there are no voiced versus voiceless pairs. The only exception is the fricative post-alveolar, because ʃ is one of the foundational sounds in Baurtrevestien. The minimal pair taë /tæː/ and thaë /thæː/ show that the language, Baurtrevestien makes a distinction in aspiration. Taë means “food” and thaë means “hand.” Vowels in Baurtrevestien are mostly comprised of front vowels. The native speakers distinguish between vowel length for different words, but there are no distinctions between rounded and unrounded vowels except for the front close-mid vowels. Vowel length distinctions can be demonstrated by the minimal pair, Schzö /ʃɔ:/ meaning "rain" and Schoh /ʃɔ/ meaning "shore." The syllables in Baurtrevestien are unique to this language. They may never begin with vowels, because vowels are viewed as the female part of the languge. In this culture, the woman may never go before the men. Baurtrevestien’s maximum of onset consonants is two, by the example /ʃlepa/. Clusters in Baurtrevestien include, /ʃl/, /βl/, and /βr/. Syllables may have more than one coda constant, though it is very rare and mostly used for technical terms such as
/βɾɔetɔhm/ which literally means, “lizard skin which aids the wound.” /hm/ is so far the only coda consonant cluster I’ve been able to document. The language is centered around certain consonant and vowel combinations which are built up on to expand the language. Although there are very few consonants to this language, it is given freedom with the large number of vowels.
Part 3: Morphology
BASIC WORDS HERE Word building in Baurtrevestien is based around several important concepts within this community. There are several inflectional morpheme categories that Baurtrevestien emphasizes on. Inflectional morphemes are “a small set of bound morphemes that do not change the grammatical class of a word but do alter it in some way” (Winkler 2007: 89). Gender is possibly the most important, as this community takes gender identity very serious. It is marked by special affixes. The prefix, ʃi- is used for noun phrased marked as female; the infix -ʒo- is for noun phrases marked as male. The neuter part in noun phrases is not marked specifically in singular noun phrases, but in plural noun phrases, it is evident with the suffix, -rɔ.
(1) ʃi-ʃimɾa to-ʒo-ni ʃimɾa-rɔ
FEM-leaf MASC-flame bird-PLU
‘the leaf’ (female) ‘the flame’ (male) the birds’ (plural neutral)
Directionality also plays an important role within this language. Usually it is only marked onto verbs, and especially those that indicate traveling or movement. Bautrevestien uses only basic directionality and is suffixed onto verbs. The suffix -hɑ indicates the action is coming from in front of you, or that you do in a forward motion. The suffix -hɔ indicates a backwards equivalent to -hɑ. The suffix -hɛ indicates a motion towards the left, or on your left side. The suffix -hʉ is the right side equivalent.
(2) βamo-ha βamo-hɔ βamo-hɛ βamo-hʉ
jump-forward jump-back jump-left jump-right
‘jump in a forwards direction' ‘jump in a backwards direction’ ‘jump towards the left’ ‘jump towards the right’
Baurtrevestien is similar to English in which each person tense has its own morpheme to indicate which person is being used. First person, which is when one is referring to themselves, they use the word la. When someone is talking to another, (or second person) they use the word, ʃu. And finally when someone is pointing out an individual who is not part of the dialogue, they are simply referred to as pa.
(3) La ʃu Pa
1st Per. 2nd Per. 3rd Per.
I You He/She/It
In the language I’ve been studying, they simply add on a suffix to indicate plural, and then do not alter the word if it is singular. If a word is singular, say, birds it would simply be written as, ʃimɾa or ‘bird.’ If it was plural, it would be given a suffix to indicate there was more then one, which is -rɔ. So the word would simply change to ʃimɾa-rɔ.
(4) ʃimɾa ʃimɾa-rɔ
bird bird pl.
‘bird’ (singular) ‘birds’ (plural)
Part 4: Syntax
The basic word order in Bautrevestien is VSO. This is so that the verb and all of its auxiliaries come first, then the subject, and finally the object. This can be demonstrated in the simple sentences below (5,6,7). In comparison to word order in 20th century Breton, it is exactly the same. It “has been traditionally classified as a VSO language, in line with other Celtic languages,” so it could be said that Bautrevestien possibly is part of the same family tree as Breton (Timm 1989: 361).
(5) mɨzø kotoɹaβə jada ʃimtø-rɔ va pakɛ
to have sitting all bird-s on stick
‘All the birds are sitting on the stick.’
This is a simple, transitive sentance, using the auxillary verb, /mɨzø/ and the quantifier, /jada/.
(6)
mɨzø mɑɹdiɑ βəɹɑ schoh ʃimtø-rɔ
to have move across shore bird-pl.
‘The birds move across the shore.’
This is a simple intransitive sentence in Baurtrevestien.
(7) mɨzø yada kotoɹaβə-hʉ ʃimtø-rɔ rɨmaete pakɛ
to have all sitting-right bird-s around stick
‘All the birds are sitting to the right around the stick.’
Yes or No questions in Baurtrevestien are formed by re-arranging the word order by placing the main verb of the verb phrase before anything else and adding an upward inflection, also a question particle is added to the main verb. This came be demonstrated by examples (8) and (9).
(8) mɨzø yada kotoɹaβə-hʉ ʃimtø-rɔ
to have all sitting-right bird-s
‘All the birds are sitting to the right.’
(9) kotoɹaβə-hʉ-cre? mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ
sitting-right-ques. to have all bird-s
‘Are all the birds are sitting to the right?’
Content questions are a little different in where a question morpheme is added to the end, and the main vern is still moved to the beginning of the sentence. This can be demonstrated by examples (10) and (11).
mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ kotoɹaβə va pakɛ
to have all bird-s sitting on stick
‘All the birds are sitting on the stick.’
kotoɹaβə mɨzø yada ʃimtø-rɔ mo
sitting to have all bird-s what
‘All the birds are sitting on what?’
Part 5: Pragmatics - Politeness and Respect
In different languages there are different rules for polite speech or respect speech. For example, Japanese uses a very developed way of presenting polite speech. Not only does it have multiple forms of the same word to express it politely but it also has “verb-compounds by themselves are capable of expressing the speaker’s intention of respecting or honoring the person referred to, or humbling the speaker himself”. In comparison to English, this is completely different polite speech. Instead of relying on tone and word choice, Japanese “classifies polite forms of its words into three types: polite honorific, polite-humble, and polite-neutral” (Prindle 1981: 209). Human beings use different ways to express politeness and respect. It could be through the alteration of morphemes or through simple morpheme choice and tone. But this is only comparatively with two languages, there is probably endless possibilities between the 7,000 or more human languages in the world today.
In Baurtrevestien, politeness is reflected similarly to Japanese in where there are “polite” forms of words to be “capable of expressing the speaker’s intention of respecting or honor the person being referred to” (Prindle 1981: 209). However the system isn’t exactly alike as Baurtrevestien does not classify these into three different categories. It simply sticks to what is being reflected as a reference to a male and a female. The emphasis in this gender role is vital among this community as several rituals and religions rights involve the different sexes. For example take the following dialogue as a man addressing a woman. He knows her as an acquaintance, and she the same.
Man: “Greetings-lifegiver, how do you find yourself this morning?”
Woman: “Hello-power, I’m very well this morning, thank you.”
The point of this dialogue is to illustrate how a “polite-honorific” is attached to a word to imply “agendas of stratification of social relationships” (Prindle 2009). There is also polite tone and clear speaking implied in this dialogue. In the next dialogue, an emphasis is placed on the fact that the woman’s polite article is also the morpheme for the sacred deity among this people, as well as how men are referred with the morpheme for strength. It is also demonstrated when a man and woman are grouped together in a pronoun that a new particle, “-ʏɵi.” Which literally translated means, “us of mankind.”
Speaker A: “You-ʃimkɵ know you-ʃimkɵ are very lucky to be a woman-ʃimkɵ. You-ʃimkɵ are blessed with the gift of our-ʏɵi mother, ʃimkɵ.”
Woman: “Thank you-ʒoni. As a “ʃimkɵ,” I must uphold what her sacredness ʃimkɵ has laid out before us-ʏɵi. We-ʏɵi cannot be referred as -ʃimkɵ without first being under our-ʏɵi great mother’s guiding light.”
To summarize, the rules of polite speech in Baurtrevestien are simple. You simply refer with the right polite-honorifics, tone and word choice. It is similar in the idea that it uses polite-honorifics with Japanese, but it doesn’t get quite as complex.
Part 6: Conclusion
Baurtrevestien is a unique language. I consider myself very lucky to have had an opportunity to study this lost language. Several aspects of this language such as the focus on alveolar consonants, and front vowels give it a sense of freedom and creativity many languages do not possess. It uses vowel length and aspiration to distinguish multiple words. It is similar to the Flesmish-Brabant dialect of Orsmaal-Gussenhoven, but lacks the french loans (Peters 2010: 240). Word building in Baurtrevestien can be especially difficult for the non-native. Gender, person, number and directionality all incorporate either affixes, or morphemes of their own that enrich this language. Baurtrevestien’s basic word order is SVO, which is exactly the same as 20th Century Breton, which has “has been traditionally classified as a VSO language, in line with other Celtic languages,” so it could be inferred that Baurtrevestien possibly is part of the same language family as Breton (Timm 1989: 361). Baurtrevestien’s pragmatics on politeness and respect are similar to Japanese, but lack the massive number of categories. It holds attachments to every reference of the sender and receiver of a dialogue. Baurtrevestien has offered a very important insight into what is an endangered language. I wonder what other complexities there are still to learn for this language, such as situations or emergency or family life. I think it would be interesting to research more on pragmatics within this language.
Part 7: Reference Page
Bowern, Claire. 2007. Swadesh wordlist, organized by semantic field. In Linguistic Fieldwork: A Practical Guide. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Peters, Jörg. 2010. Illustrations of the IPA: The Flemish-Brabant dialect of Orsmall- Gussenhoven. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40. 239-246.
Prindle, Tamae K. 1981. Polite Forms of Japanese Speech. Anthropological Linguistics. 23. 209-246.
Winkler, Elizabeth. 2007. Understanding language. New York: Continuum.
Part 8: Appendix of Words Used
Morpheme by morpheme glosses?
Word Free Translation Part of Speech
ma’ate Greetings Noun
-ʏɵ Elder Noun
-ʒoni Power Noun
-ʃimkɵ Life-giver Noun
ʃimɾa Leaf Noun
ʃimtø Bird Noun
ʃimʃlepa Fish Noun
pɔɾʉ Rock Noun
makɛ pɔɾʉ Mountain Noun
ʒiː Sun Noun
pakɛ Stick Noun
ɾɔʃim Blood Noun
tæː Food Noun
thæː Hand Noun
ʃɔ: Rain Noun
ʃɔ Shore Noun
βɾɔetɔhm Lizard Skin Wound Healer Noun
toni Flame Noun
La I Pronoun
ʃu You Pronoun
pa We Pronoun
ʃi- Female- Prefix
-ʒo- -male- Infix
-rɔ -plural Suffix
-ha Forwards Suffix
-hɔ Backwards Suffix
-hɛ Towards the left Suffix
-hʉ Towards the right Suffix
makɛ Big Adjective
ʃlepa Wet Adjective
mɑɹdiɑ Move Verb
βamo Jump Verb
kotoɹaβə Sit Verb
mo What Question Word
rɨmaete Around Adposition
jada All Quantifier
va On Preposition
βəɹɑ Across Preposition
mɨzø To Have Auxiliary Verb
-cre? Question Particle Question Particle