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<div id="siteNotice"><script type='text/javascript'>if (wgNotice != '') document.writeln(wgNotice);</script></div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading">Magic (illusion)</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</h3>
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<div class="dablink">For religious, ceremonial or paranormal magic, see <a href="/wiki/Magic" title="Magic">Magic</a>.</div>
<div class="dablink">"Illusionist" redirects here. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/The_Illusionist" title="The Illusionist">The Illusionist</a>. For the artistic tradition, see <a href="/wiki/Illusionism_(art)" title="Illusionism (art)">Illusionism (art)</a>.</div>
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<th style="background:antiquewhite; padding:0.5em; font-size:135%;"><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a></th>
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<div style="background:antiquewhite;">Major forms</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">Opera</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Circus_arts" title="Circus arts" class="mw-redirect">Circus Arts</a><br /></p>

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<div style="background:antiquewhite;">Minor forms</div>
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<p><strong class="selflink">Magic</strong><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Puppetry" title="Puppetry">Puppetry</a><br /></p>
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<div style="background:antiquewhite;">Genres</div>
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<p><a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">Comedy</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Romance_(genre)" title="Romance (genre)">Romance</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a><span style="font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyric</a><br /></p>

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<p><b>Magic</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Performing_art" title="Performing art" class="mw-redirect">performing art</a> that <a href="/wiki/Entertain" title="Entertain" class="mw-redirect">entertains</a> an <a href="/wiki/Audience" title="Audience">audience</a> by creating <a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">illusions</a> of seemingly impossible<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> feats, using purely natural means. These feats are called <i>magic tricks</i>, <i>effects</i> or <i>illusions</i>.</p>

<p>One who performs such illusions is called a <i>magician</i> or an <i>illusionist</i>. Some performers may also be referred to by names reflecting the type of magical effects they present, such as <a href="/wiki/Sleight_of_hand" title="Sleight of hand">prestidigitators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conjuration#Contemporary_references" title="Conjuration">conjurors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mentalism" title="Mentalism">mentalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Escapology" title="Escapology">escape artists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ventriloquism" title="Ventriloquism">ventriloquists</a>.</p>

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<h2>Contents</h2>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Categories_of_effects"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Categories of effects</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Secrecy"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Secrecy</span></a></li>

<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Learning_magic"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Learning magic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Types_of_magic_performance"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Types of magic performance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Misuse_of_magic"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Misuse of magic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>

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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
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<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>

<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_051.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hieronymus_Bosch_051.jpg/250px-Hieronymus_Bosch_051.jpg" width="250" height="208" class="thumbimage" /></a>
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<i><a href="/wiki/The_Conjurer_(painting)" title="The Conjurer (painting)">The Conjurer</a></i>, 1475-1480, by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>. Note that the man in the back row is stealing another man's purse. He is also applying misdirection by looking up at the sky to misdirect the audience from his actions. The artist has even misdirected us from the thief, because we are drawn to the magician.</div>
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<p>The term "magic" is etymologically derived from the Latin word <i><a href="/wiki/Magi" title="Magi">magi</a></i>. Performances we would now recognize as conjuring have probably been practiced throughout <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>. The same level of ingenuity that was used to produce famous ancient deceptions such as the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_Horse" title="Trojan Horse">Trojan Horse</a> would also have been used for <a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>, or at least for cheating in <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">money</a> games, since time immemorial. They were also used by various religions from times ancient, and were even known as far back as the early 17th century to be used to frighten uneducated populi. However, the profession of the illusionist gained strength only in the eighteenth century, and has enjoyed several popular vogues.</p>

<p>In 1584, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Scot" title="Reginald Scot">Reginald Scot</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/The_Discoverie_of_Witchcraft" title="The Discoverie of Witchcraft" class="mw-redirect">The Discoverie of Witchcraft</a></i>. It was written in an attempt to show that <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witches</a> did not exist, by exposing how (apparently miraculous) feats of magic were done. The book is often deemed the first textbook about conjuring. All obtainable copies were burned on the accession of <a href="/wiki/James_I_of_England" title="James I of England">James I</a> in 1603 and those remaining are now rare. It began to reappear in print in 1651.</p>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Roberthoudin.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Roberthoudin.jpg/180px-Roberthoudin.jpg" width="180" height="259" class="thumbimage" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Robert-Houdin" title="Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin">Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin</a>, the first modern magician</div>
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<p>From 1756 to 1781, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Philadelphia" title="Jacob Philadelphia">Jacob Philadelphia</a> performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. Modern entertainment magic owes much to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Robert-Houdin" title="Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin">Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin</a> (1805-1871), originally a clockmaker, who opened a magic theatre in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in the 1840s. His speciality was the construction of mechanical automata which appeared to move and act as if they were alive. The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> performer <a href="/wiki/John_Nevil_Maskelyne" title="John Nevil Maskelyne">J N Maskelyne</a> and his partner Cooke established their own theatre, the Egyptian Hall in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Piccadilly" title="Piccadilly">Piccadilly</a>, in 1873. They presented stage magic, exploiting the potential of the stage for hidden mechanisms and assistants, and the control it offers over the audience's point of view.</p>

<p>The model for the look of a 'typical' magician—a man with wavy hair, a goatee, and a tailcoat—was <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Herrmann" title="Alexander Herrmann">Alexander Herrmann</a> (February 10, 1844 – December 17, 1896), also known as Herrmann the Great. Herrmann was a French magician and was part of the Herrmann family name that is the "first-family of magic". Those who witnessed Herrmann the Great perform considered him the greatest magician they ever saw.</p>
<p>The escapologist and magician <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> took his stage name from Robert-Houdin and developed a range of stage magic tricks, many of them based on <a href="/wiki/Escapology" title="Escapology">escapology</a> (though that word was not used until after Houdini's death). The son of a Hungarian <a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">rabbi</a>, Houdini was genuinely skilled in techniques such as lockpicking and escaping straitjackets, but also made full use of the range of conjuring techniques, including fake equipment and collusion with individuals in the audience. Houdini's show business savvy was great as well as his performance skill. There is a Houdini Museum dedicated to him in <a href="/wiki/Scranton,_Pennsylvania" title="Scranton, Pennsylvania">Scranton, Pennsylvania</a>.</p>

<p>As a form of entertainment, magic easily moved from theatrical venues to television specials, which opened up new opportunities for deceptions, and brought stage magic to huge audiences. Famous magicians of the 20th century included <a href="/wiki/Okita" title="Okita">Okita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_(magician)" title="Alexander (magician)">Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackstone_Sr." title="Harry Blackstone Sr." class="mw-redirect">Harry Blackstone Sr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackstone_Jr." title="Harry Blackstone Jr." class="mw-redirect">Harry Blackstone Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Thurston" title="Howard Thurston">Howard Thurston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Annemann" title="Theodore Annemann">Theodore Annemann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardini" title="Cardini" class="mw-redirect">Cardini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Wonder" title="Tommy Wonder">Tommy Wonder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_%26_Roy" title="Siegfried & Roy">Siegfried & Roy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Doug_Henning" title="Doug Henning">Doug Henning</a>. Popular 20th and 21st century magicians include <a href="/wiki/David_Copperfield" title="David Copperfield">David Copperfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lance_Burton" title="Lance Burton">Lance Burton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penn_and_Teller" title="Penn and Teller" class="mw-redirect">Penn and Teller</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Blaine" title="David Blaine">David Blaine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criss_Angel" title="Criss Angel">Criss Angel</a>. Most TV magicians perform before a live audience, who provide the remote viewer with a reassurance that the illusions are not obtained with post-production <a href="/wiki/Visual_effects" title="Visual effects">visual effects</a>.</p>

<p>Many of the principles of stage magic are old. There is an expression, "it's all done with smoke and mirrors", used to explain something baffling, but effects seldom use mirrors today, due to the amount of installation work and transport difficulties. For example, the famous <a href="/wiki/Pepper%27s_Ghost" title="Pepper's Ghost" class="mw-redirect">Pepper's Ghost</a>, a stage illusion first used in 19th-century London, required a specially built theatre. Modern performers have vanished objects as large as the Taj Mahal, the Statue of Liberty, and a space shuttle, using other kinds of optical deceptions.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Categories of effects">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Categories_of_effects">Categories of effects</span></h2>
<p>There is discussion among magicians as to how a given effect is to be categorized, and disagreement as to what categories actually exist—for instance, some magicians consider "penetrations" to be a separate category, while others consider penetrations a form of restoration or teleportation. Some magicians today, such as <a href="/wiki/Guy_Hollingworth" title="Guy Hollingworth">Guy Hollingworth</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stone_(magician)" title="Tom Stone (magician)">Tom Stone</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> have begun to challenge the notion that all magic effects fit into a limited number of categories. Among magicians who believe in a limited number of categories (such as <a href="/wiki/Dariel_Fitzkee" title="Dariel Fitzkee">Dariel Fitzkee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harlan_Tarbell" title="Harlan Tarbell">Harlan Tarbell</a>, S.H. Sharpe), there has been disagreement as to how many different types of effects there are. Some of these are listed below.</p>

<ul>
<li><b>Production</b>: The magician produces something from nothing—a rabbit from an empty hat, a fan of cards from thin air, a shower of coins from an empty bucket, a <a href="/wiki/Dove_pan" title="Dove pan">dove from a pan</a>, or the magician him or herself, appearing in a puff of smoke on an empty stage—all of these effects are <i>productions</i>.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Vanish</b>: The magician makes something disappear—a coin, a cage of doves, milk from a newspaper, an assistant from a cabinet, or even the <a href="/wiki/Vanishing_the_Statue_of_Liberty" title="Vanishing the Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a>. A vanish, being the reverse of a production, may use a similar technique, in reverse.</li>
</ul>
<ul>

<li><b>Transformation</b>: The magician transforms something from one state into another—a silk handkerchief changes colour, a lady turns into a <a href="/wiki/Tiger" title="Tiger">tiger</a>, an indifferent card changes to the spectator's chosen card. A transformation can be seen as a combination of a vanish and a production.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Restoration</b>: The magician destroys an object, then restores it back to its original state—a rope is cut, a newspaper is torn, a <a href="/wiki/Sawing_a_woman_in_half" title="Sawing a woman in half">woman is sawn in half</a>, a borrowed watch is smashed to pieces—then they are all restored to their original state.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Teleportation</b>: The magician causes something to move from one place to another—a borrowed ring is found inside a ball of wool, a canary inside a light bulb, an assistant from a cabinet to the back of the theatre. When two objects exchange places, it is called a transposition: a simultaneous, double teleportation.</li>

</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Escape</b>: The magician (an assistant may participate, but the magician himself is by far the most common) is placed in a restraining device (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Handcuffs" title="Handcuffs">handcuffs</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Straitjacket" title="Straitjacket">straitjacket</a>) or a death trap, and escapes to safety. Examples include being put in a straitjacket and into an overflowing tank of water, and being tied up and placed in a car being sent through a car crusher.</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Levitation</b>: The magician defies gravity, either by making something float in the air, or with the aid of another object (suspension)—a silver ball floats around a cloth, an assistant floats in mid-air, another is suspended from a broom, a scarf dances in a sealed bottle, the magician hovers a few inches off the floor. There are many popular ways to create this illusion of even the magician himself being levitated.</li>
</ul>
<ul>

<li><b>Penetration</b>: The magician makes a solid object pass through another—a set of steel rings link and unlink, a candle penetrates an arm, swords pass through an assistant in a basket, a saltshaker penetrates the table-top, a man walks through a mirror. Sometimes referred to as "solid-through-solid".</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Prediction</b>: The magician predicts the choice of a spectator, or the outcome of an event under seemingly impossible circumstances—a newspaper headline is predicted, the total amount of loose change in the spectator's pocket, a picture drawn on a slate. Prediction forms the basis for most "pick-a-card" tricks, where a random card is chosen, then revealed to be known by the performer.</li>
</ul>
<p>Many magical routines use combinations of effects. For example, in "cups and balls" a magician may use vanishes, productions, penetrations, teleportation and transformations as part of the one presentation.</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Secrecy">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Secrecy">Secrecy</span></h2>

<div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_rights_to_magic_methods" title="Intellectual rights to magic methods">Intellectual rights to magic methods</a></div>
<p>The purpose of a magic trick is to amuse and create a feeling of wonderment;<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from February 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> the audience is generally aware that the magic is performed using trickery, and derives enjoyment from the magician's skill and cunning.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from February 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Traditionally, magicians refuse to reveal the methods behind their tricks to the audience. Reasons for secrecy include the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(magic)" title="Exposure (magic)">Exposure</a> is claimed to "kill" magic as an artform and transforms it into mere intellectual puzzles and riddles.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> It is argued that once the secret of a trick is revealed to a person, that one can no longer fully enjoy subsequent performances of that magic, as the amazement is missing.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Sometimes the secret is so simple that the audience feels let down, and feels disappointed it was taken in so easily.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></li>

<li>Keeping the secrets preserves the mystery of professional magicians.</li>
</ul>
<p>Membership in professional magicians' organizations often requires a solemn commitment to the <b>Magician's Oath</b> never to reveal the secrets of magic to non-magicians. The Magician's Oath may vary, but typically takes the following or similar form:</p>
<dl>
<dd><i>"As a magician I promise never to reveal the secret of any illusion to a non-magician, unless that one swears to uphold the Magician's Oath in turn. I promise never to perform any illusion for any non-magician without first practicing the effect until I can perform it well enough to maintain the illusion of magic."</i></dd>
</dl>
<p>Once sworn to the Oath, one is considered a magician, and is expected to live up to this promise. Magicians who reveal secrets, either purposely or through insufficient practice, may find that other magicians are unwilling to teach them any more secrets.</p>
<p>However, it is considered permissible to reveal secrets to individuals who are determined to learn magic and become magicians. It is typically a sequential process of increasingly valuable and lesser known secrets. The secrets of almost all magical effects are available to the public through numerous books and magazines devoted to magic, available from the specialized magic trade. There are also web sites which offer videos, DVDs and instructional materials. In this sense, there are very few classical illusions left unrevealed, but this does not appear to have diminished the appeal of performances. In addition, magic is a living art, and new illusions are devised with surprising regularity. Sometimes a 'new' illusion will be built on an illusion that is old enough to have become unfamiliar.</p>
<p>Some magicians have taken the position that revealing the methods used in certain works of magic can enhance the appreciation of the audience for cleverness of magic. <a href="/wiki/Penn_and_Teller" title="Penn and Teller" class="mw-redirect">Penn and Teller</a> frequently perform tricks using transparent props to reveal how they are done, for example, although they almost always include additional unexplained effects at the end that are made even more astonishing by the revealing props being used.</p>

<p>Often, what seems to be a revelation of a magical secret is merely another form of misdirection. For instance, a magician may explain to an audience member that the linking rings "have a hole in them" and hand the volunteer two unlinked rings, which the volunteer finds to have become linked as soon as he handles them. At this point the magician may shove his arm through the ring ('the hole in the ring'), proclaiming: "See? Once you know that every ring has a hole, it's easy!"</p>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Learning magic">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Learning_magic">Learning magic</span></h2>
<div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_magic_publications" title="List of magic publications">List of magic publications</a></div>
<p>Dedication to magic can teach confidence and creativity, as well as the work ethic associated with regular practice and the responsibility that comes with devotion to an art.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> The teaching of performance magic was once a secretive practice.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> Professional magicians were unwilling to share knowledge with anyone outside the profession<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> to prevent the laity from learning their secrets. This made it difficult for an interested apprentice to learn magic beyond the basics. Some had strict rules against members discussing magic secrets with anyone but established magicians.</p>

<p>From the 1584 publication of <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Scot" title="Reginald Scot">Reginald Scot</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Discoverie_of_Witchcraft" title="Discoverie of Witchcraft">Discoverie of Witchcraft</a></i> until the end of the 19th century, only a few books were available for magicians to learn the craft, whereas today mass-market books offer a myriad titles. Videos and DVDs are a newer medium of tuition, but many of the methods found in this format are readily found in previously published books. However, they can serve as a visual demonstration.</p>
<p>Persons interested in learning to perform magic can join <a href="/wiki/Magic_club" title="Magic club">magic clubs</a>. Here magicians, both seasoned and novitiate, can work together and help one another for mutual improvement, to learn new techniques, to discuss all aspects of magic, to perform for each other — sharing advice, encouragement, and criticism. Before a magician can join one of these clubs, they usually have to audition. The purpose is to show to the membership they are a magician and not just someone off the street wanting to discover magical secrets.</p>
<p>The world's largest magic organization is the <a href="/wiki/International_Brotherhood_of_Magicians" title="International Brotherhood of Magicians">International Brotherhood of Magicians</a>; it publishes a monthly journal, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Linking_Ring" title="The Linking Ring">The Linking Ring</a></i>. The oldest organization is the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_American_Magicians" title="Society of American Magicians">Society of American Magicians</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Houdini" title="Houdini" class="mw-redirect">Houdini</a> was a member and president for several years. In <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, there is <a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Circle" title="The Magic Circle">The Magic Circle</a> which houses the largest magic library in Europe. Also <a href="http://www.psycrets.org.uk" class="external text" rel="nofollow">PSYCRETS - The British Society of Mystery Entertainers</a>, which caters specifically to mentalists, bizarrists, storytellers, readers, spiritualist performers, and other mystery entertainers. The <a href="/wiki/Magic_Castle" title="Magic Castle" class="mw-redirect">Magic Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hollywood" title="Hollywood" class="mw-redirect">Hollywood</a> is home to the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Magical_Arts" title="Academy of Magical Arts">Academy of Magical Arts</a>.</p>

<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types of magic performance">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_magic_performance">Types of magic performance</span></h2>
<p>Magic performances tend to fall into a few specialties or genres.</p>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mind-reading-Russell-Morgan.jpeg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Mind-reading-Russell-Morgan.jpeg/180px-Mind-reading-Russell-Morgan.jpeg" width="180" height="227" class="thumbimage" /></a>
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A <a href="/wiki/Mentalist" title="Mentalist" class="mw-redirect">mentalist</a> on stage in a mind-reading performance, 1900</div>

</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Magicianatparty.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/83/Magicianatparty.jpg/180px-Magicianatparty.jpg" width="180" height="248" class="thumbimage" /></a>
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<a href="/wiki/Amateur" title="Amateur">Amateur</a> magician performing "children's magic" for a birthday party audience</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Stage_illusions" title="Stage illusions">Stage illusions</a></b> are performed for large audiences, typically within an auditorium. This type of magic is distinguished by large-scale props, the use of assistants and often exotic animals such as elephants and tigers. Some famous stage illusionists, past and present, include <a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackstone,_Sr." title="Harry Blackstone, Sr.">Harry Blackstone, Sr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Thurston" title="Howard Thurston">Howard Thurston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chung_Ling_Soo" title="Chung Ling Soo">Chung Ling Soo</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Copperfield_(illusionist)" title="David Copperfield (illusionist)">David Copperfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siegfried_%26_Roy" title="Siegfried & Roy">Siegfried & Roy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackstone,_Jr." title="Harry Blackstone, Jr.">Harry Blackstone, Jr.</a>.</li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Platform_magic" title="Platform magic">Platform magic</a></b> (also known as <b>cabaret magic</b> or <b>stand-up magic</b>) is performed for a medium to large audience. Nightclub magic and comedy club magic are also examples of this form. The use of illusionettes (small tabletop illusions) is common. The term <b><a href="/wiki/Parlor_magic" title="Parlor magic">parlor magic</a></b> is sometimes used but is considered by some to be pejorative. This genre includes the skilled manipulation of props such as billiard balls, card fans, doves, rabbits, silks, and rope. Examples of such magicians include <a href="/wiki/Jeff_McBride" title="Jeff McBride">Jeff McBride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penn_%26_Teller" title="Penn & Teller">Penn & Teller</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Abbott_(magician)" title="David Abbott (magician)">David Abbott</a>, <a href="/wiki/Channing_Pollock_(magician)" title="Channing Pollock (magician)">Channing Pollock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Herman" title="Black Herman">Black Herman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_Kaps" title="Fred Kaps">Fred Kaps</a>.</li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Micromagic" title="Micromagic">Micromagic</a></b> (also known as <b>close-up magic</b> or <b>table magic</b>) is performed with the audience close to the magician, sometimes even one-on-one. It usually makes use of everyday items as props, such as <a href="/wiki/Playing_card" title="Playing card">cards</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Card_manipulation" title="Card manipulation">Card manipulation</a>), <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Coin_magic" title="Coin magic">Coin magic</a>), and seemingly 'impromptu' effects. This may be called "table magic", particularly when performed as dinner entertainment. <a href="/wiki/Ricky_Jay" title="Ricky Jay">Ricky Jay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_Asher" title="Lee Asher">Lee Asher</a>, following in the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Dai_Vernon" title="Dai Vernon">Dai Vernon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slydini" title="Slydini" class="mw-redirect">Slydini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Max_Malini" title="Max Malini">Max Malini</a>, are considered among the foremost practitioners of close-up magic.</li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Escapology" title="Escapology">Escapology</a></b> is the branch of magic that deals with escapes from confinment or restraints. <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> is a well-known example of an <i>escape artist</i> or <i>escapologist</i>.</li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Mentalism" title="Mentalism">Mentalism</a></b> creates the impression in the minds of the audience that the performer possesses special powers to read thoughts, predict events, control other minds, and similar feats. It can be presented on a stage, in a cabaret setting, before small close-up groups, or even for one spectator. Well-known mentalists of the past and present include <a href="/wiki/Alexander_(magician)" title="Alexander (magician)">Alexander</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Zancigs" title="The Zancigs" class="mw-redirect">The Zancigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axel_Hellstrom" title="Axel Hellstrom">Axel Hellstrom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunninger" title="Dunninger" class="mw-redirect">Dunninger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kreskin" title="Kreskin">Kreskin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Banachek" title="Banachek">Banachek</a>.</li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_s%C3%A9ances" title="Theatrical séances">Theatrical séances</a></b> simulate spiritualistic or mediumistic phenomena for theatrical effect. This genre of stage magic has been misused at times by charlatans pretending to actually be in contact with spirits.</li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_magic" title="Children's magic">Children's magic</a></b> is performed for an audience primarily composed of children. It is typically performed at birthday parties, preschools, elementary schools, Sunday schools or libraries. This type of magic is usually comedic in nature and involves audience interaction as well as volunteer assistants.</li>
<li><b>Online magic tricks</b> were designed to function on a computer screen. The computer essentially replaces the magician. Some online magic tricks recreate traditional card tricks and require user participation, while others, like Plato's Cursed Triangle, are based on mathematical, geometrical and/or optical illusions. One such online magic trick, called <a href="http://www.realmagic.net/dp/1-1.htm" class="external text" rel="nofollow">Esmeralda's Crystal Ball</a>, became a viral phenomenon that fooled so many computer users into believing that their computer had supernatural powers, that <a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes" class="mw-redirect">Snopes</a> dedicated a page to <a href="http://www.snopes.com/humor/iftrue/psychic.asp" class="external text" rel="nofollow">debunking the trick.</a></li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Mathemagician" title="Mathemagician">Mathemagic</a></b> is a genre of stage magic that combines magic and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. It is commonly used by <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_magic" title="Children's magic">children's magicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mentalists" title="Mentalists" class="mw-redirect">mentalists</a>.</li>
<li><b>Corporate magic</b> or <b>trade show magic</b> uses magic as a communication and sales tool, as opposed to just straightforward entertainment. Corporate magicians may come from a business background and typically present at meetings, conferences and product launches. They run workshops and can sometimes be found at trade shows, where their patter and illusions enhance an entertaining presentation of the products offered by their corporate sponsors. The pioneer performer in this arena is Eddie Tullock.<sup id="cite_ref-Herz1991_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herz1991-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Gospel_magic" title="Gospel magic">Gospel magic</a></b> uses magic to catechize and evangelize. <a href="/wiki/Gospel_magic" title="Gospel magic">Gospel magic</a> was first used by <a href="/wiki/St._Don_Bosco" title="St. Don Bosco" class="mw-redirect">St. Don Bosco</a> to interest children in 19th century <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> to come back to school, to accept assistance and to attend church.</li>
<li><b><a href="/wiki/Street_magic" title="Street magic">Street magic</a></b> is a form of street performing or <a href="/wiki/Busking" title="Busking">busking</a> that employs a hybrid of stage magic, platform and close-up magic, usually performed '<a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_the_round" title="Theatre in the round">in the round</a>' or surrounded by the audience. Notable modern street magic performers include <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sheridan" title="Jeff Sheridan">Jeff Sheridan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gazzo" title="Gazzo">Gazzo</a>. Since the first <a href="/wiki/David_Blaine" title="David Blaine">David Blaine</a> TV special <i>Street Magic</i> aired in 1997, the term "street magic" has also come to describe a style of 'guerilla' performance in which magicians approach and perform for unsuspecting members of the public on the street. Unlike traditional street magic, this style is almost purely designed for TV and gains its impact from the wild reactions of the public. Magicians of this type include <a href="/wiki/David_Blaine" title="David Blaine">David Blaine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Takayama" title="Cyril Takayama">Cyril Takayama</a>.</li>

<li><b><a href="/wiki/Bizarre_magic" title="Bizarre magic">Bizarre magic</a></b> uses <a href="/wiki/Mystical" title="Mystical" class="mw-redirect">mystical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horror_(genre)" title="Horror (genre)" class="mw-redirect">horror</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">fantasy</a> and other similar themes in performance. Bizarre magic is typically performed in a close-up venue, although some performers have effectively presented it in a stage setting. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cameron_(magician)" title="Charles Cameron (magician)">Charles Cameron</a> has generally been credited as the "godfather of bizarre magic." Others, such as <a href="/wiki/Tony_Andruzzi" title="Tony Andruzzi">Tony Andruzzi</a>, have contributed significantly to its development.</li>
<li><b>Shock magic</b> is a genre of magic that shocks the audience. Sometimes referred to as "geek magic," it takes its roots from circus sideshows, in which 'freakish' performances were shown to audiences. Common shock magic or geek magic effects include eating razor blades, <a href="/wiki/Needle-through-arm" title="Needle-through-arm">needle-through-arm</a>, string through neck and pen-through-tongue.</li>

</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Misuse of magic">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Misuse_of_magic">Misuse of magic</span></h2>
<p>Some modern magicians say that it is unethical to give a performance which claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception; the performer <a href="/wiki/Jamy_Ian_Swiss" title="Jamy Ian Swiss">Jamy Ian Swiss</a>, for example, makes this point by billing himself as an "honest liar."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> On the other side of the coin, many performers say that magical acts, as a form of theater, need no more of a disclaimer than any play or film; this viewpoint is reflected in the words of magician and mentalist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Joseph Dunninger</a>, "For those who believe, no explanation is necessary; for those who do not believe, no explanation will suffice."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p>

<p>These apparently irreconcilable differences of opinion have led to some conflicts among performers. For example, more than thirty years after the hugely successful illusionist <a href="/wiki/Uri_Geller" title="Uri Geller">Uri Geller</a> made his first appearances on television in the 1970s to exhibit his apparently psychic ability to bend spoons, his actions still provoke controversy among some magical performers, because he never told the public that he was using conjuring techniques. On the other hand, because Geller bent—and continues to bend—spoons within a performance context, the Dunninger quote may be said to apply.</p>
<p>Less fraught with controversy, however, may be the use of deceptive practices by those who employ conjuring techniques for personal gain outside the venue of a magical performance.</p>
<p>Fraudulent mediums have long capitalized on the popular belief in <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> phenomena to prey on the bereaved for financial gain. From the 1840s to the 1920s, during the greatest popularity of the <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(religious_movement)" title="Spiritualism (religious movement)" class="mw-redirect">Spiritualism religious movement</a> as well as public interest in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séances</a>, a number of fraudulent mediums used conjuring methods to perform illusions such as table-knocking, slate-writing, and <a href="/wiki/Telekinesis" title="Telekinesis" class="mw-redirect">telekinetic</a> effects, which they attributed to the actions of <a href="/wiki/Ghosts" title="Ghosts" class="mw-redirect">ghosts</a> or other spirits. The great escapologist and illusionist <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> devoted much of his time to exposing such fraudulent operators.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p>

<p>Fraudulent <a href="/wiki/Faith_healers" title="Faith healers" class="mw-redirect">faith healers</a> have also been shown to employ sleight of hand to give the appearance of removing chicken-giblet "tumors" from patients' abdomens.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2009" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Confidence_trick" title="Confidence trick">Con men</a> and grifters too may use techniques of conjuring for fraudulent goals. Cheating at <a href="/wiki/Card_game" title="Card game">card games</a> is an obvious example, and not a surprising one: one of the most respected textbooks of card techniques for magicians, <i>The Expert at the Card Table</i> by Erdnase, was primarily written as an instruction manual for card sharps. The card trick known as "Find the Lady" or "<a href="/wiki/Three-card_Monte" title="Three-card Monte">Three-card Monte</a>" is an old favourite of street hustlers, who lure the victim into betting on what seems like a simple proposition: to identify, after a seemingly easy-to-track mixing sequence, which one of three face-down cards is the Queen. Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Shell_game" title="Shell game">shell game</a>, in which a pea is hidden under one of three walnut shells, then shuffled around the table (or sidewalk) so slowly as to make the pea's position seemingly obvious. Although these are well-known as frauds, people still lose money on them; a shell-game ring was broken up in Los Angeles as recently as December 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p>

<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_Museum_of_Magic" title="American Museum of Magic">American Museum of Magic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Circle" title="The Magic Circle">The Magic Circle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indian_magicians" title="Indian magicians">Indian magicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magicians" title="List of magicians">List of magicians</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magic_publications" title="List of magic publications">List of magic publications</a></li>

</ul>
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="references-small">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-0"><b><a href="#cite_ref-0">^</a></b> Henning Nelms. Magic and Showmanship: A Handbook for Conjurers, page 1 (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc, 2000).</li>
<li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> Jim Steinmeyer. "A New Kind of Magic," in Hiding the Elephant: How Magicians Invented the Impossible and Learned to Disappear (New York, NY: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003).</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> Hollingworth, Guy. "Waiting For Inspiration." Genii Magazine. January 2008-December 2008.</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> Stone, Tom. "Lodestones." Genii Magazine. February 2009 -</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">"The Theory and Art of Magic". <i>The Linking Ring</i> (The International Brotherhood of Magicians). November 2000.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Theory+and+Art+of+Magic&rft.jtitle=The+Linking+Ring&rft.date=November+2000&rft.pub=The+International+Brotherhood+of+Magicians&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Herz1991-5"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herz1991_5-0">^</a></b> Bill Herz with Paul Harris. <i>Secrets of the Astonishing Executive</i> (New York, NY: Avon Books, 1991).</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" title="Washington Post" class="mw-redirect">Washington Post</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <a href="http://www.memorable-quotes.com/joseph+dunninger,a4219.html" class="external free" rel="nofollow">http://www.memorable-quotes.com/joseph+dunninger,a4219.html</a> Memorable-Quotes.com</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> Harry Houdini. A Magician Among the Spirits (New York: Harper and Bros., 1924)</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> Andrew Blankenstein. "8 Arrested in Downtown Shell-Game Operation," <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a>, December 10, 2009.</li>

</ol>
</div>
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Magic_(illusion)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><span class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Maurine Christopher and Milbourne Christopher</a> (1996). <i>The Illustrated History of Magic</i>. Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0435070169" title="Special:BookSources/0435070169">0435070169</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+History+of+Magic&rft.aulast=Maurine+Christopher+and+Milbourne+Christopher&rft.au=Maurine+Christopher+and+Milbourne+Christopher&rft.date=1996&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.isbn=0435070169&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>

<li><span class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Milbourne_Christopher" title="Milbourne Christopher">Milbourne Christopher</a> (1962). <i>Panorama of Magic</i>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Panorama+of+Magic&rft.aulast=Milbourne+Christopher&rft.au=Milbourne+Christopher&rft.date=1962&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dunninger" title="Joseph Dunninger">Dunninger, Joseph</a>. <i>The Complete Encyclopedia of Magic</i>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Encyclopedia+of+Magic&rft.aulast=Dunninger&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Dunninger%2C%26%2332%3BJoseph&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Price, David (1985). <i>Magic: A Pictorial History of Conjurers in the Theatre</i>. Cornwall Books.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Magic%3A+A+Pictorial+History+of+Conjurers+in+the+Theatre&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Price%2C%26%2332%3BDavid&rft.date=1985&rft.pub=Cornwall+Books&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">Randi, James</a> (1992). <i><a href="/wiki/Conjuring_(book)" title="Conjuring (book)">Conjuring: A Definitive History</a></i>. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0312086342" title="Special:BookSources/0312086342">0312086342</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%5B%5BConjuring+%28book%29%7CConjuring%3A+A+Definitive+History%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Randi&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Randi%2C%26%2332%3BJames&rft.date=1992&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.isbn=0312086342&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>

<li><span class="citation book">Stebbins, Robert A. (1993). <i>Career, Culture and Social Psychology in a Variety Art: The Magician</i>. Malabar, FL: Krieger.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Career%2C+Culture+and+Social+Psychology+in++a+Variety+Art%3A+The+Magician&rft.aulast=Stebbins&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Stebbins%2C%26%2332%3BRobert+A.&rft.date=1993&rft.place=Malabar%2C+FL&rft.pub=Krieger&rfr_id=info Confused

id/en.wikipedia.org:Magic_(illusion)"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
</ul>
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